Combien de gravures Rembrandt a-t-il réalisées ?

Environ 290 à 300 estampes entre les années 1620 et 1665.

Quelle est la différence entre gravure et eau-forte ?

Gravure est un terme général ; à l’eau-forte, l’acide creuse le cuivre à travers un vernis.

Qu’est-ce qu’un état ?

Une version identifiable de la plaque après une modification durable.

Pourquoi la pointe sèche donne-t-elle un noir velouté ?

La barbe de métal relevée par l’aiguille retient davantage d’encre.

Une réimpression posthume est-elle un faux ?

Non si elle est correctement décrite, mais elle ne doit pas être confondue avec une épreuve du vivant de Rembrandt.

Rembrandt engraver · 1626 -1665

Engravings and etchings by Rembrandt

A comprehensive guide to understanding copper plate, acid, drypoint, successive states, papers and prints that made Rembrandt an absolute master of printmaking.

300 °Cetchings and dry tips

40 yearsgraphic experimentation

1 platemultiple states and unique impressions

The Coin of a Hundred Florins, circa 1648. Etching, chisel and drypoint: one of the peaks in the entire history of printmaking.

Essential answer

Rembrandt does not reproduce his paintings: he thinks in black and white

Between around 1626 and 1665, Rembrandt produced around 290 to 300 prints. The majority are etchings, often taken up with a drypoint and sometimes with a chisel. They are not simple cheaper versions of his paintings: they have their own formats, their own subjects and a grammar based on line, paper white and ink density.

The plate allows him to return to an image. He adds or erases sizes, modifies the light, changes the inking, chooses a different paper. Two sheets taken from the same matrix can thus produce very distant experiments.

To remember: a "Rembrandt engraving" refers to the image printed from a plaque worked by the artist. The common term "etching" does not always describe the whole technique, because Rembrandt frequently combines etching, drypoint and chisel.

1626first experiences in Leiden

1630sself-portraits, tronies and large scenes

1640slandscapes and Piece of a Hundred Florins

1650sradical and black drypoint states

From plate to sheet

How is etching made?

The final image is reversed from the drawing on the plate. Each step influences the fineness of the line, the depth of the blacks and the number of possible prints.

Prepare the copper

Plate is polished, degreased then coated with acid resistant varnish.

Draw with a needle

The artist removes the varnish without heavily digging into the metal. Copper appears under the line.

Acid bite

Acid attacks exposed parts. Several baths allow you to obtain different depths.

Take the plate again

Dry tip and chisel reinforce a shadow, correct a shape or create a new state.

Ink

The ink is pushed into the sizes, then the surface is wiped more or less completely.

Moisten the paper

Softened paper can penetrate hollows under pressure and collect ink.

Go to press

Strong pressure transfers the image and often leaves the rectangular imprint of the plate.

Examine the test

Rembrandt decides to continue editing, modify the plate or vary the wiping.

Soft-sized press in Rembrandt's House in Amsterdam — An intaglio press recreated in Rembrandt's House.

A multiplied image, never completely repeated

The matrix makes several prints possible. However, pressure, humidity of the paper, quantity of ink, wiping and wear of the plate modify each sheet. The edition is therefore not a perfectly uniform industrial series.

The right vocabulary

Etching, drypoint, chisel and plate tone

Catalogs often describe several techniques on the same sheet. Their combination explains the variety of Rembrandt lines.

Etching

The acid hollows out the lines drawn in the varnish. The gesture can remain free, quick and close to pen drawing.

Generally clear line, modulated by bite duration.

Dry tip

The needle directly scratches the copper and lifts a metallic beard. This beard holds ink and gives a velvety black.

Fragile effect: beard quickly crushes under the press.

Chisel

A sharp tool removes a metal chip. Rembrandt uses it to specify or reinforce certain sizes.

More controlled and durable line than drypoint beard.

Plate tone

Instead of wiping all the copper, the printer leaves a veil of ink on the surface and opens lights with the cloth.

Each wipe can make the test noticeably unique.

Chopping

Networks of parallel or crossed lines construct the shadow without removing the active white of the paper.

Their density reveals walls, fabrics, sky and depth.

Counter-test

A fresh print can be transferred to a second sheet, giving a paler image and placed in the same direction as the plate.

It helps to compare drawing, plate and printing.

Detail of Christ in Rembrandt's The Hundred Florin Piece — Central detail: the luminous figure of Christ separates debate, the reception of children and healings.

The great manifesto

The Coin of a Hundred Florins

This composition brings together several episodes from chapter 19 of the Gospel according to Matthew: healings, welcomed children, debates with the Pharisees and departure of the rich young man. Christ forms the pivot between a clear, almost bare area and a crowd emerging from the depths.

Its nickname comes from a collecting tradition: a proof would have reached one hundred florins, a spectacular sum for a print. Rather, the original title describes Christ healing the sick.

DateAround 1648

TechniqueEtching, chisel and drypoint

StrengthMake story, light and multitude coexist without losing the center

StatesTwo main states generally recognized

A plaque, several works

The Three Crosses: understanding states

A condition is an identifiable version of the plate after a lasting modification. It should not be confused with a simple variation of inking or paper.

The Three Crosses of Rembrandt, first state, 1653 — **First state, 1653**The sky remains wide open; the beams of light structure the crowd around Christ.

The Three Crosses by Rembrandt, late state remodeled — **Late state, around 1660**The plaque is profoundly reworked: the darkness becomes more massive and the scene almost apocalyptic.

Why does a state count? Because it places the test in the material history of the matrix. A first state is not automatically "better"; some late states are major inventions. Quality also depends on printing, paper, preservation and the presence of drypoint beard.

Print like painting

Entombment: what wiping changes

The Metropolitan Museum retains two prints that show with exceptional clarity how the same brass can go from a readable scene to an almost tactile night.

The Entombment of Rembrandt, first state around 1654 — **First condition, clean wiping**Sizes alone print the image; light is constructed by the density of the hatching.

The Entombment of Rembrandt, second state with plaque tone — **Second state, plate tone**A veil of ink covers the copper and lights are wiped around the faces and body.

The matrix

The added lines remain on all subsequent prints of this state.

Wiping

The ink veil changes from one impression to another without necessarily creating a new state.

The paper

Its color and surface further transform the temperature and accuracy of the image.

A world in small format

What's wrong with Rembrandt?

His repertoire ranges from grimaces to monumental biblical scenes. Humble subjects are never secondary: they teach him gestures, faces and narration.

Self-portrait of Rembrandt engraving at the window, 1648

Self-portraits and tronies

Rembrandt tests expressions, hairstyles, shadows and artist identities. In 1648, he represented himself at work, needle or pen in hand.

The Death of the Virgin, etching and drypoint by Rembrandt, 1639

Bible and history

The Death of the Virgin displays a crowd, a monumental bed and a sky of angels with a freedom close to drawing.

L'Orfèvre, etching and drypoint by Rembrandt, 1655

Jobs and daily life

A goldsmith's workshop becomes a scene of attention: fire, tools, beams and a small figure working in the darkness.

Portrait of Clement de Jonghe, print dealer, engraved by Rembrandt in 1651

Portraits

Clement de Jonghe, a print dealer, is struck in a calm pose. Six states show the repetitions of the background and the garment.

Jews in a synagogue, Rembrandt etching from 1648

Neighborhood and observation

Figures discuss in a synagogue. The print organizes the space by the whites as much as by the hatched areas.

Faust, etching, drypoint and Rembrandt chisel circa 1652

Knowledge and appearance

In Faust, a scholar turns away from his books in front of a luminous disk. The title is late, but the visual mystery remains.

The Three Trees, engraved landscape by Rembrandt, 1643 — **The Three Trees, 1643**Etching, chisel and drypoint, unique condition.

The sky becomes an event

Engraved landscapes

Rembrandt travels around Amsterdam and transforms sea walls, farms, trees and flat horizons into atmospheric experiences. In The Three Trees, the vertical group resists a sky crossed by a downpour and clearings.

The sheet is not limited to a topographical view. Travelers, workers and tiny scenes hide in the field. The landscape becomes a totality: weather, distance, human activity and duration.

Low horizonHatched cloudsPlans by densityMicroscopic details

Three black lessons

Light, density and silence

Late prints do not always seek maximum sharpness. Black becomes a material capable of holding the eye.

Saint Jerome in a Dark Room, print by Rembrandt, 1642 — **Saint Jerome, 1642**The dark comes mainly from a very dense network of sizes, not from a simple veil of ink.

Engraved portrait of the doctor Ephraim Bueno by Rembrandt — **Ephraim Bueno, 1647**An identifiable doctor appears in a portrait of a great graphic economy.

Engraved portrait of Menasseh ben Israel by Rembrandt — **Menasseh ben Israel, 1636**The rabbi and printer testifies to the intellectual and editorial network of Amsterdam.

Support is part of the work

European paper, Japanese paper and vellum

Rembrandt chooses its media for their hue, absorption and ability to retain drypoint effects. Paper is never a neutral background.

European laid paper

Made on a metal wire shape, it shows rods, pontuseaux and sometimes a watermark. These clues can help date and compare prints.

Japanese or Asian paper

Finer, warmer and more supple, it favors rich blacks and great finesse. Old notices sometimes use different terms for these imported papers.

Velin

This animal support, rare and expensive, gives a smooth and luminous surface. Certain tests of Three Crosses are printed on vellum.

Read a notice

Bartsch, Hind and New Hollstein

Letters and numbers placed after a title are not copy numbers. They refer to catalogs raisonnés which classify compositions and their states.

Abbreviation	Catalog	Utility
B	Adam von Bartsch	Historical numbering still very common.
H	Arthur M. Hind	Ranking and chronology long used in English.
BB	Bioerklund and Barnard	20th century reference, often visible in sales.
NH	New Hollstein	Modern reference detailing reports, papers and copies.

Example: "B. 74, NH 239, IV/V" means that the composition bears these numbers in two catalogs and that the proof belongs to the fourth state out of five.

Look like a specialist

How do I examine a print attributed to Rembrandt?

1 · Identify the composition

Compare title, plate dimensions, signature and catalog references.

2 · Determine state

Observe the added lines, erased areas and lasting retouching of the matrix.

3 · Study the paper

Look for rods, watermarks, fiber structure and consistency with documented papers.

4 · Judge impression

Examine sharpness, relief of sizes, presence of beard, wiping, plate tone and wear.

5 · Control margins

A cropped sheet may remain authentic, but it loses clues: bowl, watermark and dimensions.

6 · Establish provenance

Collectible brands, old sales, certificates and publications must form a verifiable chain.

7 · Distinguish between printing and reprinting

An original plaque may have been reprinted long after Rembrandt's death, sometimes after retouching.

8 · Consult an expert

Photography and signature are not enough to authenticate or estimate an important sheet.

Pay attention to the word "original": it may designate an old print of the Rembrandt plaque, a posthumous reprint taken from the plaque, or be misused for one reproduction photomechanics. Require condition, catalog, paper, dimensions and provenance.

Work on paper

Preserve etching without damaging it

Paper is sensitive to light, climatic variations, adhesives and acidic materials. Interventions must remain reversible.

Low lightAvoid direct sunlight and limit prolonged exposure.

Neutral assemblyAcid-free mat and bottom, reversible Japanese hinges.

Stable climateAvoid cellars, attics, damp walls and direct heating.

Protective glassUseful UV filtration, without letting the sheet touch the glazing.

See good tests

Reference collections

Paper works are often presented in rotation for conservation reasons. Always check the hanging before a visit.

House of RembrandtAmsterdam · almost all etchings and demonstrations RijksmuseumAmsterdam · considerable funds and online research Metropolitan MuseumNew York · Open Access images and comparable states British MuseumLondon · technical notices and state series National Gallery of ArtWashington · extensive collection of prints Louvre MuseumParis · Edmond de Rothschild drawing and collection office

Continue in the collection

Rembrandt beyond printmaking

All RembrandtsExplore the full collection Self-portraitsCompare painting, drawing and identity PortraitsFaces, models and chiaroscuro How Rembrandt paintedSupports, layers and material Rembrandt's workshopStudents, production and press Rembrandt's triangleThe painter's light in photography

Frequently asked questions

Rembrandt's etchings in ten answers

How many prints did Rembrandt make?

Catalogs and museums generally speak of around 290 to 300 prints, produced from the second half of the 1620s until 1665.

What is the difference between engraving and etching?

"Engraving" is a general term. With etching, the acid hollows out the lines discovered in a varnish; with a chisel or drypoint, the tool acts directly on the metal.

Did Rembrandt print his plates himself?

He closely controlled printing and experimented with inking and papers. Assistants were able to participate in the material work of the workshop.

What's a state?

A version of the matrix after a lasting modification. A difference in wiping or paper alone does not constitute a new state.

Why does drypoint make a velvety black?

The metal raised on either side of the stripe, called a beard, retains more ink. This beard wears out quickly under the press.

Why are certain tests more sought after?

Condition, print quality, paper, preservation, margins, provenance and rarity combine. An old date is not enough to guarantee quality.

Is a posthumous reprint a fake?

Not necessarily, if correctly described as a posthumous print of an original plaque. However, it should not be sold as a proof during Rembrandt's lifetime.

How do you recognize the bowl?

This is the slight rectangular imprint left by the edges of the plate under pressure. It may disappear if the sheet has been heavily trimmed.

Are the signatures reversed?

Rembrandt had to write on the mirrored plaque so that the signature and date appeared in the correct direction on the proof.

Where to see the largest set of etchings?

Rembrandt's House in Amsterdam preserves almost all the compositions. Rijksmuseum, British Museum, Met and NGA also have major ensembles.

Sources